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The one most people are familiar with is the“desk dictionary”，sometimes refered to as
general…purpose dictionary． Another kind is the pronouncing dictionary， which is concerned with a word's
pronunciation more than with its meaning． A third type is the bilingual dictionary， which lists the words in one
language and attempts to give equivalent meaning in another language． Other types include technical
dictionaries， special
purpose dictionaries，and scholarly dictionaries．
第四单元 如何写推展句
4．1段落的推展
在前几单元中，我们谈到写段落的第一个步骤是写主题句。作者要对主题句在某些方面加以限制。第二个步骤将是写推展句。例如你要陈述你选择某院校的理由，第一步，写出主题句：
There are two main reasons why I have decided to attend Bingston
University next year．
第二步，以数个理由推展你的主题：
示范段落4…1
① There are two main reasons why I
have decided to attend Bingston University next year．② First of all， there is the question of money：Bingstonv's tuition is reasonable
and I don’t even have to
pay it all at once．③ This is very important， since my father is not a rich man．④ With Bingston's “deferred payment plan，” my father will be able to pay my tuition without too much
difficulty．⑤The second
resaon is the fine education which I feed will receive there in agriculture， my chosen field．⑥ It is a well…known fact that
Bingston hires only the finest professors in its Agriculture Department．⑦ Moreover， the university reqires all
agricultural students to get practical experience by working on farms in the
areawhile they are still going to school．
4．2示范段落分析
细节： two main reasons：
理由 1—financial consideration②
a． reasonable
tuition③
b． deferred
payment plan④
理由 2—quality of education⑤
a． fine
teachers③
b． practical
experience⑦
在两个主要理由之下，作者用更小的细节支持它们。
由此可见，段落的推展依赖于支持主题句的细节（details）。推展段落的方法很多。通常每个段落以一种方法为“支配方法”（ the
dominant method），必要时，可运用其它一种或数种方法作为“辅助方法”（ the supporting method）。上面的示范段落使用因果法（cause…and…effect）作为支配方法，分类法（division and classification）作为辅助方法。作者还运用了“重要性排列顺序”（the order of importance）作为安排细节、组织段落的手段。我们将在以下各单元逐个讨论这些方法。
Exercise4…1
Directions： Read the following paragraphs and find out what details the authors
use to support their topic sentences．
（1）
Warm water freezes more quickly than cold． Sir Francis Bacon stated that
almost four hundred years ago． But few people believedhim—till 1970． In that year， Canadian scientist George Kell proved the English scholar right． Dr． Kell filled an open pail with cold water． He filled another with warm water． He exposed both to the same low
temperature． The warm
water froze first．
Topic Sentence：____________________________________________
Details：1．________________________________________________
2．________________________________________________
（2）
There is a relationship between your blood type and your nationality． Among Europeans and people of
European ancestry，about 42
percent have type A while 45 percent have type O．The rarest is type B． Other races have different percentages．For example， some American Indian groups have
nearly 100 percent type O．
Topic Sentence：____________________________________________
Details：1．________________________________________________
2．________________________________________________
（3）
Although thousands of people have been killed by sudden eruptions， volcanoes also benefit man， Tin， tungsten， gold and other metals have been brought closer to the earth’s surface．Chemicals in the ash have enriched
farmland． When solid， lava is agood building material． And in Italy， steam from active volcanoes
supplies heat and power to surrounding areas．
Topic Sentence：____________________________________________
Details：1．_______________________________________________
2．_______________________________________________
3．_______________________________________________
4．_______________________________________________
（4）
The Women’s Movement has had several effects on the English language． It has created Ms， a title for women parable to
the title Mr． for men． The creator of the new title
objected to the title Miss and Mrs． once given to women because these titles violated a woman's privacy
by indicating her marital status． The use of Ms．now permits women to enjoy the same privacy that men have enjoyed
with the use of Mr． Second， the Movement has changed the ending of many pound words from…man
to…person．For instance， the word “chairman” has been replaced in many
organization with the word “chairperson”， and the word“salesman”has bee salesperson． Feminists insist that the substitution of…person for…man makes the
position more suitable for members of either sex． Third， the Movement
is responsible for new terms．One example is male chauvinist pig， a term applied to a man who refuses to recognize the equality of
women． Another example
is female chauvinist sow， a phrase used to describe a female who believes that she is
superior to males． The most
profound effect the Movementhas had on the language is on the third person
singular pronoun．Thirty years
ago most English instructors forced their students to se he， him， and his for the third person singular when the sex of the person
was not known． Thus， students were taught to say，“Everyone has his books”．Today many English teachers permit
students to follow the feminist lead and use the masculine and feminine
pronouns together． Therefore， constructions such as his or her
books are mon． Although the
Women's Movement may not have yet achieved all of its goals， it has made a mark on the English
language．
Topic Sentence：___________________________________________
Details：1．______________________________________________
2．______________________________________________
3．______________________________________________
4．______________________________________________
第五单元如何写结论句
5．1结论句
第一单元曾提到，段落由三个部分组成，最后一部分就是结论句（ the
concluding sentence）。结论句通常与主题句一样包含有段落的中心思想，然而所用措辞与主题句不同。
在示范段落 1…1，主题句是： We all know that cigarette
smoking is a dangerous habit because it causes health problems．
结论句是： It is clearly identified as
one of the chief causes of death in our society．
5．2关于写结论句的建议
1）把握主题句的关键词
例如在关于“cigarette smoking”的示范段落 1…1中，中心思想是“the health problems caused
by cigarette smoking，关键词是“health problems”。
2）总结细节，回答主题句中隐含的问题。
在上述示范段落中，隐含的问题是“What are the health
problems caused by cigarette smoking？”结论句作出的回答是 It is identified as one of the chief cause of death in our society．
3）用不同的措辞表达同一中心思想。
在上述段落中，主题句的关键词是“health problems”，而在结论句中，关键词是“causes of death”。
示范段落5…1
Our neighborhood has been greatly changed． When I last visited there， about half the homes had been torn
down to make way for a superhighway． The remaining buildings were plastered with billboards and
surrounded by traffic signs and litter． Now the whole neighborhood has bee dirty， noisy and full of cars．
5．3示范段落分析
主题句： Our neighborhood has been
changed．
主题句关键词： changed
主题句隐含的问题：“How has the neighborhood
changed？
细节： 1． a superhighway built—noisy and full of cars
2． full of
billboards， traffic
signs and litter—dirty
结论句： Now the whole neighborhood has
bee dirty， noisy
andfull of cars．
结论句关键词： dirty，noisy and full of cars
结论句总结了细节并回答了主题句提出的问题。
Exercise 5…1
Directions：Read the following paragraph．Find out the topic sentence and the concluding sentence， and rearrange the details so that
the paragraph will make sense．
① In less than three years the farm
had gone to pieces．②All the windows had been broken out of the big two…story farm house．③In the front of the house the
grass was about three feet tall andthe barn yard was full of weeds instead of
pigs squealing to be fed．④There were no more cows to milk or horses to ride．⑤My grandmother's farm has a lot of
enjoyable memories for me，but after she died， I left home to join the army and when I returned，I was disappointed at the changes
that had taken place．⑥ Paint was peeling off the house and the porch roof was sagging．⑦ Lively as the place had been
before my grandmother died， it seemed to have died with her now．⑧This farm had once been lively with the noise of a tractor plowing
the land and a dog barking whenever someone came up to the house．
Topic Sentence：________Supporting Details：________
Concluding Sentence：_________
Exercise 5…2
Directions： Read the following paragraphs and underline the topic sentence of
each． Then write your
own concluding sentence to plete each paragraph．
（1）
Pollution has caused three major problems in the last decades．First， with the development of industry， more and more factories have been built and have sent out smoke and
poisonous gases．Thus the air
is polluted． The
increasing number of cars adds to the air pollution． Second， farmers use chemical fertilizers
to increase production and insecticide to kill insects． When rain flows with these
poisonous chemicals to rivers， water is polluted． A third formof pollution， noise， is being
more and more serious． Very loud noises can make people sick， and even drive them mad．
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
（2）
There are three important findings from studies concerned with
notetaking． First，notetaking does not interfere with
listening and prehension； in fact， it helps you listen． Second， students who study their lecture notes remember one and a half
times more after six weeks than students who do not review． Third， students who take no notes， or do not study their notes， forget approximately 80percent of
the lecture by the end of two weeks．From these findings we can conclude that students who take enough
notes and then study them， both directly after the lecture and several additional times before
an examination， stand a good
chance of remembering between90 and 100％ of the material！_______________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
第六单元 如何写好一个段落（Ⅰ）
6．1段落的特征
一个好的段落应该具有以下三个特征：1）完整性（pleteness）； 2）统一性（unity）； 3）连贯性（coherence）。
6．2完整性
段落的完整性指的是段落得以充分展开。作者一俟写好主题句，就应该用细节进行推展，细节越充足越好。例如，你认为“Riding motorcycles is dangerous”，你就应该用你所知道的事实证明这一观点是正确的。你可以使用数字（statistics），列举例子（example），进行描绘（descriptions）等等。
示范段落6…1
Ever since the time of the Greeks， drama has played an important role in man's lives． The Greek tragedies and e dies
were a central part of the citizens' lives in ancient Greece． During the Middle Ages， Bible stories were acted out in
churches，and wandering
panies of players performed in the streets． In modern times， drama is brought directly into people's homes through the magic of
television．
6．3示范段落分析
主题句： Ever since the time of the
Greeks， drama has
played animportant role in man's lives．
细节：1． ancient Greece
2． the Middle
Ages
3． modern times
作者根据各个不同历史时期提供细节，举例说明戏剧的重要性。
6．4 统一性
一个好的段落应该具有统一性。统一性就是一个中心思想统领整个段落。每个细节都应支持主题句，不应有无关的细节。为了支持主题，要尽可能多地提供细节，但又要避免�